Principles of English Etymology By Walter W. Skeat; Clarendon press; p. 479, "The Tribe that Gave Vikings Their Name? The assimilation of the nascent Scandinavian kingdoms into the cultural mainstream of European Christendom altered the aspirations of Scandinavian rulers and of Scandinavians able to travel overseas, and changed their relations with their neighbours. There were also official communities within towns and villages, the overall defence, religion, the legal system and the Things. The form occurs as a personal name on some Swedish runestones. 99. [7] Viking tendencies were often misreported, and the work of Adam of Bremen, among others, told largely disputable tales of Viking savagery and uncleanliness. [19][38] On September 12, 2017, ahead of its fifth-season premiere, the series was renewed for a sixth season of 20 episodes. This helmet is made of iron and has been dated to the 10th century. The great majority are open at the front, although some had hook and ring closures and a few had mortice and tenon locking catches to close them. [17], Toronto Blue Jays player Josh Donaldson is a fan of the Vikings series and in January 2016, it was announced that he would have a guest appearance in the fourth season of the show as "Hoskuld". [202][205], On festive occasions storytelling, skaldic poetry, music and alcoholic drinks, like beer and mead, contributed to the atmosphere. [251] They promoted the use of Norse mythology as the subject of high art and other ethnological and moral aims. This included the furs of. 13, May 27, 2003", James Randerson, "Proof of Liverpool's Viking past", "DNA shows Celtic hero Somerled's Viking roots", "Early Political Organisation: (a) An Introductory Survey", "Kingship, Christianity and coinage: monetary and political perspectives on silver economy in the Viking Age", "Víking – 'rower shifting'? The mutton and swine were cut into leg and shoulder joints and chops. Towns appeared that functioned as secular and ecclesiastical administrative centres and market sites, and monetary economies began to emerge based on English and German models. Norse legendary sagas were partially fictional tales based in the Norse oral tradition, written down about 200 to 400 years after the events they describe. Scandinavian bodyguards of the Byzantine emperors were known as the Varangian Guard. [166] They were active within art as poets (skalder)[166] and rune masters, and as merchants and medicine women. Pääkkönen was cast as Halfdan the Black, Finehair's brother. Trade between western Europe and the rest of Eurasia suffered a severe blow when the Western Roman Empire fell in the 5th century. 'They were crazy! Viking Bracelet with Dragon's Head - Viking Jewelry Arm Ring - Adjustable Bronze Armband - Norse Cuff Bracelet for Men Women - 001-247 PAKABONE. On April 5, 2013, History renewed Vikings for a ten-episode second season. [28] Music for the series was contributed by Scandinavian artists with strong Nordic folk influences, including Wardruna and Danheim. During the 18th century, British interest and enthusiasm for Iceland and early Scandinavian culture grew dramatically, expressed in English translations of Old Norse texts and in original poems that extolled the supposed Viking virtues. The idealised view of the Vikings appealed to Germanic supremacists who transformed the figure of the Viking in accordance with the ideology of a Germanic master race. 121–39, English Historical Documents, c. 500–1042 by Dorothy Whitelock; p. 776. [1] The first season's budget was reported as US$40 million. Some modern words and names only emerge and contribute to our understanding after a more intense research of linguistic sources from medieval or later records, such as York (Horse Bay), Swansea (Sveinn's Isle) or some of the place names in Normandy like Tocqueville (Toki's farm). The formal, close-quarters style of Viking combat (either in shield walls or aboard "ship islands") would have made horned helmets cumbersome and hazardous to the warrior's own side. Free shipping on many items | Browse your favorite brands | affordable prices. Men involved in warfare, for example, may have had slightly shorter hair and beards for practical reasons. The Northern Crusades: Second Edition by Eric Christiansen; See information on the "Slavonic and Norse names of the Dnieper rapids" on. The renewed interest of Romanticism in the Old North had contemporary political implications. This article is brought to you by Sons of Vikings, an online store with hundreds of Viking related items including jewelry, drinking horns, t-shirts, viking clothing, home decor and more. $19.99 $ 19. Silver was the most common metal in the economy, although gold was also used to some extent. The Swedish district of Uppland has the highest concentration with as many as 1,196 inscriptions in stone, whereas Södermanland is second with 391.[121][122]. Such tactics may have been deployed intentionally by shock troops, and the berserk-state may have been induced through ingestion of materials with psychoactive properties, such as the hallucinogenic mushrooms, Amanita muscaria,[214] or large amounts of alcohol. Hødnebø, Finn (1987). Chess also appeared at the end of the Viking Age. Karls were free peasants. Viking Norse Bracelets Viking Norse Bracelets are for those of you wanting a Fantastic Silver Viking Norse Style Bracelet. [258] It is also common near the southern Baltic and North Sea coasts, and successively decreases further to the south geographically. Researchers have suggested that Vikings may have originally started sailing and raiding due to a need to seek out women from foreign lands. Almost all of the jewellery was crafted in specific designs unique to the Norse (see Viking art). The Viking bracelets here make a fantastic addition to any historical costume or outfit with a range of styles available for men and women. "The Gjermundbu Find – The Chieftain Warrior", "MtDNA and the Islands of the North Atlantic: Estimating the Proportions of Norse and Gaelic Ancestry", Roger Highfield, "Vikings who chose a home in Shetland before a life of pillage", "Excavating Past Population Structures by Surname-Based Sampling; The Genetic Legacy of the Vikings in Northwest England, Georgina R. Bowden, Molecular Biology and Evolution, 20 November 2007", "A Y Chromosome Census of the British Isles, Capelli, Current Biology, Vol. Viking Bracelets and Norse Torcs for real dedicated vikings. Alexandria VA: Gerriets, Marily. in, Hall, A. R. 1999 "The Home: Food – Fruit, Grain and Vegetable." ⚫️ Le cadeau rituel était la base de la société Viking. ", "Taking Turns: linguistic economy and the name of the Vikings", "Indo-European Lexicon. 14–15. The thralls did most of the daily chores, while the Jarls did administration, politics, hunting, sports, visited other Jarls or went abroad on expeditions. The History Press Ltd, 2005. When a Jarl died and was buried, his household thralls were sometimes sacrificially killed and buried next to him, as many excavations have revealed.[159]. Therefore, the term had been used about Israelites on the Red Sea; Muslims encountering Scandinavians in the Mediterranean; Caucasian pirates encountering the famous Swedish Ingvar-Expedition, and Estonian pirates on the Baltic Sea. A large number of silver hoards from the Viking Age have been uncovered, both in Scandinavia and the lands they settled. The older, smaller stone was raised by King Gorm the Old, the last pagan king of Denmark, as a memorial honouring Queen Thyre. The general misconception that Viking warriors wore horned helmets was partly promulgated by the 19th-century enthusiasts of Götiska Förbundet, founded in 1811 in Stockholm. These pirates, which are called wichingi by their own people, and Ascomanni by our own people, pay tribute to the Danish king." Important trading ports during the period include Birka, Hedeby, Kaupang, Jorvik, Staraya Ladoga, Novgorod, and Kiev. [103], By the late 11th century, royal dynasties were legitimised by the Catholic Church (which had had little influence in Scandinavia 300 years earlier) which were asserting their power with increasing authority and ambition, with the three kingdoms of Denmark, Norway, and Sweden taking shape. The most important primary sources on the Vikings are contemporary texts from Scandinavia and regions where the Vikings were active. PIE Etymon and IE Reflexes", "Moslem designation of the Vikings as Majus or heathen Zoroastrians, and the Maga fellowship of Zarathustra", "Among the Norse Tribes: The Remarkable Account of Ibn Fadlan", "Risala: Ibn Fadlan's Account of the Rus", The Cambridge History of Scandinavia, Issue 1, "History of Northumbria: Viking era 866 AD–1066 AD", "Climate change froze Vikings out of Greenland", "Vikings' Barbaric Bad Rap Beginning to Fade", "Los vikingos en Al-Andalus (abstract available in English)", "Vikings Might Have Started Raiding Because There Was a Shortage of Single Women", "The Real Reason for Viking Raids: Shortage of Eligible Women? A Historiographic Overview", This page was last edited on 17 December 2020, at 14:56. [111] The Scandinavians did write inscriptions in runes, but these are usually very short and formulaic. [242] Recent archaeological interpretations and osteological analysis of previous excavations of Viking burials has given support to the idea of the Viking woman warrior, namely the excavation and DNA study of the Birka female Viking warrior, within recent years. Soapstone was traded with the Norse on Iceland and in Jutland, who used it for pottery. Early transmission of this information was primarily oral, and later texts relied on the writings and transcriptions of Christian scholars, including the Icelanders Snorri Sturluson and Sæmundur fróði. [31], The term ”Viking" that appeared in Northwestern Germanic sources in the Viking Age denoted pirates. A romanticised picture of Vikings as noble savages began to emerge in the 18th century; this developed and became widely propagated during the 19th-century Viking revival. In these years, Swedish men left to enlist in the Byzantine Varangian Guard in such numbers that a medieval Swedish law, Västgötalagen, from Västergötland declared no one could inherit while staying in "Greece"—the then Scandinavian term for the Byzantine Empire—to stop the emigration,[64] especially as two other European courts simultaneously also recruited Scandinavians:[65] Kievan Rus' c. 980–1060 and London 1018–1066 (the Þingalið).[65]. They facilitated everyday transportation across seas and waterways, exploration of new lands, raids, conquests, and trade with neighbouring cultures. Vikings is a historical drama television series created and written by Michael Hirst for the History channel. Children often participated in some of the sport disciplines and women have also been mentioned as swimmers, although it is unclear if they took part in competition. The appearance of Vikings within popular media and television has seen a resurgence in recent decades, especially with the History Channel's series Vikings (2013), directed by Michael Hirst. [241] The show also addresses the topics of gender equity in Viking society with the inclusion of shield maidens through the character Lagertha, also based on a legendary figure. 5th–8th centuries (Fayard, 2005). The series is inspired by the tales of the Norsemen of early medieval Scandinavia. Others acted more like a wallet with easy to remove pieces. Not until the 1890s did scholars outside Scandinavia begin to seriously reassess the achievements of the Vikings, recognizing their artistry, technological skills, and seamanship.[231]. Little is known about Viking religious practice and its depiction is largely fictitious. [162] An exception to her independence was the right to choose a husband, as marriages were normally arranged by the family. The only original Viking helmet discovered is the Gjermundbu helmet, found in Norway. ", "Das Älvdalische – Sprache oder Dialekt? Fear of the Franks led the Vikings to further expand Danevirke, and the defence constructions remained in use throughout the Viking Age and even up until 1864.[73]. Few scholars still accept these texts as reliable sources, as historians now rely more on archaeology and numismatics, disciplines that have made valuable contributions toward understanding the period. [150] Longships were intended for warfare and exploration, designed for speed and agility, and were equipped with oars to complement the sail, making navigation possible independently of the wind. ", Carol Clover, "Regardless of Sex: Men, Women, and Power in Early Northern Europe", Representations, No. The show portrays Ragnar as a farmer who rises to fame by successful raids into England, and eventually becomes a Scandinavian King, with the support of his family and fellow warriors. These representations are rarely accurate—for example, there is no evidence that they wore horned helmets, a costume element that first appeared in Wagnerian opera. [114][115] A lot of Old Norse connections are evident in the modern-day languages of Swedish, Norwegian, Danish, Faroese and Icelandic. [66] The Norse regularly plied the Volga with their trade goods: furs, tusks, seal fat for boat sealant, and slaves. [70] The showrunner Michael Hirst said, "I especially had to take liberties with Vikings because no one knows for sure what happened in the Dark Ages ... we want people to watch it. [220] There are indications from Ribe and surrounding areas, that the extensive medieval trade with oxen and cattle from Jutland (see Ox Road), reach as far back as c. 720 AD. Mike Parker Pearson, Mark Brennand, Jacqui Mulville and Helen Smith. The Vikings had a profound impact on the early medieval history of Scandinavia, the British Isles, France, Estonia, Kievan Rus' and Sicily.[8]. To counter the Saxon aggression and solidify their own presence, the Danes constructed the huge defence fortification of Danevirke in and around Hedeby. a long-distance sea journey, because in the pre-sail era, the shifting of rowers would distinguish long-distance sea journeys. Most contemporary literary and written sources on the Vikings come from other cultures that were in contact with them. "Money among the Irish: Coin Hoards in Viking Age Ireland" The Journal of the Royal Society of Antiquaries of Ireland, vol. Scandinavian Norsemen explored Europe by its seas and rivers for trade, raids, colonization, and conquest. Caroline Ahlström Arcini "Eight Viking Age Burials", The Viking Age: A Time With Many Faces, Oxbow Books (2018), pp. "Women and sexual politics", in, Ohlander, Ann-Sofie & Strömberg, Ulla-Britt, Tusen svenska kvinnoår: svensk kvinnohistoria från vikingatid till nutid, 3. Skiing and ice skating were the primary winter sports of the Vikings, although skiing was also used as everyday means of transport in winter and in the colder regions of the north. It broadly follows the exploits of the legendary Viking chieftain Ragnar Lothbrok and his crew, family and descendants, as notably laid down in the 13th-century sagas Ragnars saga Loðbrókar and Ragnarssona þáttr, as well as in Saxo Grammaticus's 12th-century work Gesta Danorum. Sumarliði R. Ísleifsson (Québec, 2011), pp. [68], They raided and pillaged, traded, acted as mercenaries and settled colonies over a wide area. [72] In the fourth episode of the second season, the bishop of Wessex is shown inflicting crucifixion as punishment for apostasy, while it had been outlawed more than 4 centuries earlier by Emperor Constantine the Great,[73] and it would have been blasphemous for the Christian population. [167] These liberties gradually disappeared after the introduction of Christianity,[168] and from the late 13th-century, they are no longer mentioned. the Muslim world),[131] England[132] (including London[133]), and various places in Eastern Europe. The Vikings built many unique types of watercraft, often used for more peaceful tasks. Thyme, juniper berry, sweet gale, yarrow, rue and peppercress were also used and cultivated in herb gardens. Overall, archaeo-botanical investigations have been undertaken increasingly in recent decades, as a collaboration between archaeologists and palaeoethno-botanists. Remains of bread from primarily Birka in Sweden were made of barley and wheat. Retrieved 25 July 2018. 5 out of 5 stars (4,664) 4,664 reviews. Twenty years later, they appear in the Gesta of Adam of Bremen. In Germany, awareness of Viking history in the 19th century had been stimulated by the border dispute with Denmark over Schleswig-Holstein and the use of Scandinavian mythology by Richard Wagner. 115, 1985, pp. [264], Norse explorers, raiders, merchants, and pirates, Two types of Norse runestones from the Viking Age, Examples of Viking burial mounds and stone set graves, collectively known as, Emergence of Nation-States and Monetary Economies. Belts (Men) Belts (Women) Hooked Tags. Many seem designed for near-permanent wear and would have been difficult to remove. Assimilation to the Frankish culture in Normandy for example was rapid. Who were the first vikings? The Vikings. [263], Recent research suggests that the Celtic warrior Somerled, who drove the Vikings out of western Scotland and was the progenitor of Clan Donald, may have been of Viking descent, a member of haplogroup R-M420. [54] Nancy DeWolf Smith of The Wall Street Journal noted the "natural and authentic" setting and costumes, and appreciated that Vikings was (unlike, e.g., Spartacus) not a celebration of sex and violence, but "a study of character, stamina, power and ... of social, emotional and even intellectual awakening". [161][165], Concubinage was also part of Viking society, whereby a woman could live with a man and have children with him without marrying; such a woman was called a frilla. Bracelet Viking est composé de cinq bandes d'acier rivetée 2 sangles en cuir dur. This suggests a much higher actual percentage, as linen is poorly preserved compared to wool for example. The research at Coppergate shows that the Vikings in York made bread from whole meal flour—probably both wheat and rye—but with the seeds of cornfield weeds included. [47] It was later moved to FX, which debuted the second season on February 4, 2015. [185][186], Certain livestock were typical and unique to the Vikings, including the Icelandic horse, Icelandic cattle, a plethora of sheep breeds,[187] the Danish hen and the Danish goose. The Vikings are known to have played instruments including harps, fiddles, lyres and lutes. [64], Some critics have pointed out historical inaccuracies in the depiction of Viking society. [201], The quality of food for common people was not always particularly high. [89][94] The ascendance of Christianity in Scandinavia led to serious conflict, dividing Norway for almost a century. [29][30][31], Vikings premiered on March 3, 2013, in Canada[34] and the United States. The kings of Norway continued to assert power in parts of northern Britain and Ireland, and raids continued into the 12th century, but the military ambitions of Scandinavian rulers were now directed toward new paths. It appears to have involved two stallions pitted against each other, within smell and sight of fenced-off mares. [5][6][7] In the countries they raided and settled, the period is known as the Viking Age, and the term 'Viking' also commonly includes the inhabitants of the Norse homelands. The best Viking bracelets in the world! [60] The Greenland settlement was established around 980, during the Medieval Warm Period, and its demise by the mid-15th century may have been partly due to climate change. [56] Neil Genzlinger, in The New York Times, praised the "arresting" cinematography and the actors' performances, notably Fimmel's, and favorably contrasted Vikings to Game of Thrones and Spartacus for the absence of gratuitous nudity. The Normans, Norse-Gaels, Rus' people, Faroese and Icelanders emerged from these Norse colonies. Lawson, M K (2004). The Normans were descendants of those Vikings who had been given feudal overlordship of areas in northern France, namely the Duchy of Normandy, in the 10th century. [48] Season three of Vikings began broadcasting in Australia on SBS One on March 19, 2015. [84][85] Polygynous marriage increases male-male competition in society because it creates a pool of unmarried men who are willing to engage in risky status-elevating and sex seeking behaviors. Due to this, the average Viking man could have been forced to perform riskier actions to gain wealth and power to be able to find suitable women. Further inspiration is taken from historical sources of the period, such as records of the Viking raid on Lindisfarne depicted in the second episode, or Ahmad ibn Fadlan's 10th-century account of the Varangians. During and after the Viking raid on Seville in 844 CE the Muslim chroniclers of al-Andalus referred to the Vikings as Magians (Arabic: al-Majus مجوس), conflating them with fire worshipping Zoroastrians from Persia. Monty Dobson, a historian at Central Michigan University, criticised the depiction of Viking clothing but went on to say that fictional shows like Vikings could still be a useful teaching tool. Thralls were servants and workers in the farms and larger households of the Karls and Jarls, and they were used for constructing fortifications, ramps, canals, mounds, roads and similar hard work projects. [39] On January 4, 2019, it was announced that the sixth season would be the series' final season. [11] Edvin Endre [12] and Anna Åström signed up for roles in the second season. [143] Some of the most important burial sites for understanding the Vikings include: There have been several archaeological finds of Viking ships of all sizes, providing knowledge of the craftsmanship that went into building them. In 2019, archaeologists uncovered two Viking boat graves in Gamla Uppsala. O'Conner, Terry. [180], The sagas tell about the diet and cuisine of the Vikings,[181] but first hand evidence, like cesspits, kitchen middens and garbage dumps have proved to be of great value and importance. Christianity had taken root in Denmark and Norway with the establishment of dioceses in the 11th century, and the new religion was beginning to organise and assert itself more effectively in Sweden. The antecedents of the Knights Templar: these are people who were absolutely religious, yet they put on armor and they fought. These arms indicated a Viking's social status: a wealthy Viking had a complete ensemble of a helmet, shield, mail shirt, and sword. "Cnut: England's Viking King 1016–35". [165] Usually she would be the mistress of a wealthy and powerful man who also had a wife. On 1 July 2007, the reconstructed Viking ship Skuldelev 2, renamed Sea Stallion,[207] began a journey from Roskilde to Dublin. [35][36][37] On March 17, 2016, History renewed Vikings for a fifth season of 20 episodes, which premiered on November 29, 2017. [23] The fifth season also features Irish actor, musician and real-life police detective, Kieran O'Reilly, who plays the role of "White Hair". Many of these sagas were written in Iceland, and most of them, even if they had no Icelandic provenance, were preserved there after the Middle Ages due to the continued interest of Icelanders in Norse literature and law codes. [25][26][27][28] This is found in the Proto-Nordic verb *wikan, 'to turn', similar to Old Icelandic víkja (ýkva, víkva) 'to move, to turn', with well-attested nautical usages. [43], In the UK, Vikings premiered on May 24, 2013, where it was exclusively available on the streaming video-on-demand service LoveFilm. These have included novels directly based on historical events, such as Frans Gunnar Bengtsson's The Long Ships (which was also released as a 1963 film), and historical fantasies such as the film The Vikings, Michael Crichton's Eaters of the Dead (movie version called The 13th Warrior), and the comedy film Erik the Viking. [141] The items buried with the dead give some indication as to what was considered important to possess in the afterlife. Popular conceptions of the Vikings often strongly differ from the complex, advanced civilisation of the Norsemen that emerges from archaeology and historical sources. [69] Early Vikings probably returned home after their raids. Bill Goddard and Séamus McInerney act as co-producers. [255], There is no evidence that Vikings drank out of the skulls of vanquished enemies. Thus the end of the Viking Age for the Scandinavians also marks the start of their relatively brief Middle Ages. However, swords were rarely used in battle, probably not sturdy enough for combat and most likely only used as symbolic or decorative items.[210][211]. "The Timechart of Military History". There are archaeological signs of organised textile productions in Scandinavia, reaching as far back as the early Iron Ages. In that respect, descendants of the Vikings continued to have an influence in northern Europe. Jomsborg's exact location, or its existence, has not yet been established, though it is often maintained that Jomsborg was somewhere on the islands of the Oder estuary. The production team for this season includes casting directors Frank and Nuala Moiselle, costume designer Joan Bergin, visual effects supervisors Julian Parry and Dominic Remane, stunt action designers Franklin Henson and Richard Ryan, composer Trevor Morris, production designer Mark Geraghty, editors Aaron Marshall for the first, third, fifth, seventh and ninth episodes, and Tad Seaborn for the second, fourth, sixth, eighth and tenth episodes, and cinematographer PJ Dillon. Later writings on the Vikings and the Viking Age can also be important for understanding them and their culture, although they need to be treated cautiously. Both archaeological finds and written sources testify to the fact that the Vikings set aside time for social and festive gatherings. [158] Slavery was of vital importance to Viking society, for everyday chores and large scale construction and also to trade and the economy. The people of Älvdalen stopped using runes as late as the 1920s. FREE Shipping. Un cadeau d'appartenance de grande qualité ! [252], Cartoons like Hägar the Horrible and Vicky the Viking, and sports kits such as those of the Minnesota Vikings and Canberra Raiders have perpetuated the myth of the horned helmet. [67] The Norwegian newspaper Aftenposten reported that the series incorrectly depicted the temple at Uppsala as a stave church in the mountains, whereas the historical temple was situated on flat land and stave churches were characteristic of later Christian architecture. Vikings[a] were the seafaring Norse people from southern Scandinavia (present-day Denmark, Norway and Sweden)[2][3][4] who from the late 8th to late 11th centuries raided, pirated, traded and settled throughout parts of Europe, and explored westward to Iceland, Greenland, and Vinland. C. Paterson, "The combs, ornaments, weights and coins", Cille Pheadair: A Norse Farmstead and Pictish Burial Cairn in South Uist. During the Viking Age the Norse homelands were gradually consolidated from smaller kingdoms into three larger kingdoms: Denmark, Norway and Sweden. They are usually in memory of the dead, though not necessarily placed at graves. [232], Until recently, the history of the Viking Age was largely based on Icelandic sagas, the history of the Danes written by Saxo Grammaticus, the Russian Primary Chronicle, and Cogad Gáedel re Gallaib. 4.1 out of 5 stars 27. Athelstan is portrayed being heroic but an unfavourable attitude towards Christianity is implied from the narrative choices in the depiction of figures venerated as Saints by the Roman Catholic Church and the Eastern Orthodox Church, such as Heahmund the Bishop of Sherborne (who is portrayed as having a deeply questionable morality, being involved in several sexual relations and in the murder of another bishop) and the Missionary Ansgar, the Patron of Scandinavia (his death is inaccurately depicted as taking place in Scandinavia, and no mention is made of his effective evangelisation). Explore all 'Jewellery' pages. The medieval Church held that Christians should not own fellow Christians as slaves, so chattel slavery diminished as a practice throughout northern Europe. [52][53][54][55][56], Geographically, the Viking Age covered Scandinavian lands (modern Denmark, Norway and Sweden), as well as territories under North Germanic dominance, mainly the Danelaw, including Scandinavian York, the administrative centre of the remains of the Kingdom of Northumbria,[57] parts of Mercia, and East Anglia. Vikings established Norse settlements and governments in the British Isles, Ireland, the Faroe Islands, Iceland, Greenland, Normandy, the Baltic coast, and along the Dnieper and Volga trade routes in what is now European Russia, Belarus[9] and Ukraine[10] (where they were known as Varangians). Post your items for free. [234] In Normandy, which had been settled by Vikings, the Viking ship became an uncontroversial regional symbol.
Pizza Michou Polminhac,
Go Kart à Vendre,
Introduction Sur Le Tourisme En Cote D'ivoire,
Citation Mental Fort,
Grande Canarie Voyage,